Natural Environment of Armenia

DRAFT—not for distribution
from: Adventure Armenia: Hiking & Rock Climbing guidebook Oct 2004

Geography and Geology
A land-locked country, Armenia covers over 10% of the Armenian plateau. Relatively recent volcanic activity on the Armenian plateau has resulted in significant volcanic formations, and highlands consisting of a series of both small and large mountain massifs. A number of lakes, including lakes Sevan, Van and Urmia also been created as a result of tectonic activity in the region. Armenia is a typical mountainous territory with well-defined mountainous relief and ramified river drainage. Indeed, 87% of the Armenian territory is between 1000 and 3000 meters high. Furthermore, there is a wide range of altitude. The lowest points are the Debed river at the Northern border of Armenia with Georgia, located 379 meters above the sea level, and the town of Meghri at the Southern border of Armenia with Iran, while the highest point, Mount Aragats in Central Armenia, is 4,090 meters above the sea level.

Armenia’s mountainous nature helps create a series of highly diverse landscapes, with variations in geological substrate, terrain, climate, soils, and water resources.

The Ararat Valley, where the capital Yerevan is located, represents the lowest part of the Ararat depression which is still undergoing tectonic movement. The average elevation of Ararat Valley is 900 m above sea level and partially semi-desert, with green orchards and gardens along the Arax river. The Ararat plain serves as the major agricultural basin for Armenia where more than thirty-five percent of Armenia’s vegetables and fruits are grown. Ararat Valley is dominated by the stunning Mount Ararat with its two peaks which is actually located in Turkey, just across the border.

In the North of the Armenia, the landscape is dominated by the Bazoom and Halab mountain ranges, and parallel to them, the Pambak mountain range further South. These mountains are approximately 2800m high and are characterized by gentle grass covered slopes.

The northeast of Armenia (Lori and Tavush districts) have extensive forest coverage. Rainfall is more abundant in the northeast and the variation between winter and summer is softer than in most other parts of Armenia.

Another amazing feature of the country’s natural environment is lake Sevan. Lake Sevan is Armenia’s largest surface water resource, covering four percent of Armenia’s territory. The lake is situated at an altitude of 1900m and is considered one of the largest alpine lakes in the world. Lake Sevan is surrounded by several mountain ranges. The western shore of the lake is bordered by the Geghama Mountain range with its typical volcanic cone shaped peaks and small craters on the top. Ascending the Geghama mountains such as Mount Azhdahak (3597 m) rewards with splendid views of lake Sevan, the surrounding mountain ranges and Ararat Valley. On the opposite side of the lake, parallel to its eastern shore, are the Areguni and Sevan ranges. The Sevan range forms a natural border with neighboring Azerbaijan. The Vardenis mountain range runs along the Southern shore of Lake Sevan.

Mount Aragats, the highest mountain within Armenia (4090 m), dominates the landscape of Central Armenia. Mount Aragats is a huge volcanic mountain with four peaks and a deep crater of 350m. It stands alone in the Central Armenia and covers a perimeter of 200 square km. The landscape of Central Armenia is characterized by meadows and mountainous steppes with isolated small forests in Tsakhadzor and Hankavan. The climate is dry and continental, with hot summers and cold winters.

In the south of Armenia, the Vayk and Zangezur ranges run from North to South and form a natural border with the Autonomous Republic of Nakhichevan, an Azerbaijani enclave located between Turkey and Armenia. The Sunik range, also running from North to South, forms the natural border between Armenia and Azerbaijan. Two smaller mountain ranges, the Bargooshat and Meghri mountains, run across the uttermost South of Armenia. The Armenian high plateau between Vayk and Goris is characterized by a wild, treeless landscape of alpine meadows and mountain steppes. The climate is dry and harsh, with hot summers and cold winters. The region around Kapan, further South, dominated by the mystic Mount Khustup whose peak is most of the time covered by mist, is covered with grasslands, lakes and forests. The southern most part of Armenia, the region around the town of Meghri near the border with Iran, is again characterized by another climate zone. This region shares the same climatic conditions with the bordering Northern part of Iran which allows figs and pomegranades to grow.

Most of the Armenian mountains are of volcanic origins and covered with relatively recent lava. When hiking, one can find an abundance of obsidian in the Geghama mountain range and tuff on the slopes of Mount Aragats. Obsidian is a volcanic glass and is considered a semi-precious stone. It is also known as “Satan’s nail” in Armenian. Tuff is a lightweight volcanic rock which comes in yellow, grey and red color shades and is omnipresent in the Armenian architecture.

Weather
The climate in Armenia is dry and continental, with hot summers and cold winters. Notwithstanding, the weather conditions in Armenia change according to the wide variety of geographic terrain. While it may be sunny and hot in Yerevan and the Ararat valley, 60 km away in Sevan it may be cold and rainy, and snowing in the upper regions of Aragats.

Common August temperatures range between highs of 30-40 ºC in the Ararat Valley and 18-20ºC in middle mountain regions. Common January temperatures range between lows of -5 to -15ºC in the Ararat Valley to common lows of -18 to -25ºC in the middle mountain regions (see annex 2 for conversion from ºC to ºF). Above 3000m, snow disappears only between mid-June to mid-September, with permanent snows in some areas.

Armenia receives an average of 2700 sun hours of light a year and a total average precipitation of 550 mm. The greatest amount of precipitation occurs in the upper regions, and during Spring and early Summer, with a second rainy season in October and November.

Fauna
Armenia’s mountainous terrain creates numerous climate zones and microclimates, providing the country with a biodiversity that belies its small area. For example, Armenia is home to over 365 bird species during the year, compared to 400-500 across the entire European continent. Armenia provides an important passage and resting sites for migratory animals and birds. Furthermore, Armenia is located in a region where many of the western world’s domesticated plants and livestock originated. The country is also home to the ancestor of the domesticated sheep, the mouflon, as well as wild varieties of barley that were among the first to be domesticated in Mesopotamia. The Armenian forests in the North-East, around Jermuk and in the South of the country around Kapan are believed to be populated by wolves, lynxs and species of the Caucasian bear.

There has been little research recently, but even based on the existing data it is reported that 24 percent of the fauna in Armenia are “internationally threatened species.” The highest risk mammals are said to include the Mehely horseshoe bat, the European freetailed bat, the European otter, the brown bear, the Asian wild sheep, the striped hyena, and the Caucasian birch mouse. The Armenian mouflon has suffered a severe population decline due to poaching and habitat loss. The most threatened fish include the winter bakhtak (Salmo ischan) formerly representing 30 percent of the trout of Lake Sevan, now nearly disappeared. Threatened reptiles include the Armenian viper

Flora
Armenia has been identified as an important center for both wild and cultivated plants and is one of the most vegetation specie-dense countries in the world with more than 100 species per square kilometer. In the Soviet period a genetic warehouse was maintained containing over two hundred of the regions distinct grape species, but this facility has fallen into neglect and disrepair. Even today, when hiking in the Armenian mountains, wild varieties of apricot are readily visible, as well as a diversity of wildflowers and herbs used for traditional medicine and cooking.

It is estimated that Armenia has between 150 and 200 relict species of plants. These species, practically unchanged since geological time, are an important part of botanical diversity in Armenia. Some species have adapted well to current conditions. Other relicts are widely spread but only associated with particular habitats, while some species are found only in specific sites or refuges. Approximately half the plant species in Armenia are at risk of extinction. Intensive grazing of animals (especially since the end of the Soviet period when feed was imported) threatens a wide variety of plants. Many of the rare and threatened plants in Armenia are associated with wetlands. However, drainage of marsh and wetlands for agriculture inevitably damage these ecosystems and associated flora.

Protected Areas & Conservation
The system for Specially Protected Territories in Armenia was established in 1958. The network currently covers 10% of the total area of the country and 60% of the species of fauna and flora found in Armenia are represented within the protected areas system. However, despite the size and history of the protected areas network, there are problems with the design and management that limit their effectiveness for biodiversity conservation, most important the lack of enforcement of protection status and insufficient resources and staff.

Four State Reserves and two National Parks have been established in Armenia. But only for two State Reserves regulation and administrative structure are currently set up, the Sev Lich and Khosrov reserves.

Khosrov State Reserve
Covering an area of 29,200ha, Khosrov Reserve (established 1958) is located in Central Armenia. This is one of the most important Protected Areas in Armenia. It contains over half of all Armenian flora and 171 animal species. The conservation situation relatively good. This reserve is a fantastic place with many hikes, however to access the Reserve you need an authorization which can be arranged in advance by a guide.

Sev Lich State Reserve
Established in 1987, this reserve includes 240ha around the crater of Great Ishkhanasar mountain (Southern Armenia). Conservation objects are unique communities of volcanic lake ecosystem and endemic plants and animals.

Sevan National Park
Located in the Lake Sevan Basin this Park includes 24,900 ha of land and 125,200 ha water. It was created in 1978 to protect the ecosystem of and surrounding Lake Sevan. This basin is ecologically unique and contains abundant flora and fauna. It hosts more than 1,700 species of plants. Approximately only 5 percent of the basin has forest cover and unfortunately, much of it has been cut for fuel.

Dilijan National Park
Located in North-Eastern Armenia, in the mountain ranges of Pambak and Areguni, this National Park was first established as a Reserve in 1958 and changed to a National Park in 2003. Conservation objects are Beech and Oak Mesophyl Forests typical to Caucasus Region; unique natural, historical & architectural monuments (Church of Aghpat ), and the forest fauna mainly consisting of bears, wolfves, wild cats, roe deers and others).

Prior to the collapse of the former Soviet Union a number of laws regulated biodiversity conservation outside protected areas, including human activities around rivers, water catchments and resorts, use of pastures, and collection of species. However, many of these regulations are now out of date, and do not take account of the new economic situation. Currently, three regulations are implemented by the Ministry of Nature Protection: licensing of hunting and fisheries; licensing for the collection and storage of wild medicinal plants; and ecological assessment of any new business activity.

Environmental Issues

Forests
Armenia’s forests are comprised of over 200 species of trees and shrubs with the predominant species being oak, beach and hornbeam. Nearly all forests in Armenia are deciduous (loose their leaves in the winter), but during Soviet times pine plantations were established at a rate of up to 7,000 ha per year to prevent erosion and provide conifer forests. Given Armenia has few native varieties of pine trees, these plantations are the most notable presence of pine and non-deciduous trees in the country. Historically covering approximately 40-45% of current day Armenia’s territory (1st Century B.C.), and even 25% at the beginning of the 20th century, forests now only cover about 8-9% of the country. Although significant loss of Armenia’s forests occurred during the energy crisis in 1991-94 (especially near population centers), the cutting and devastation continue at such a pace that forests could be eradicated in 20 years. 4,000 hectares of forests are cut every year primarily for fuel, which represents 70% of the total wood cut in Armenia. Reducing the demand for wood fuel is central to protecting Armenia’s forests. Solutions would include developing affordable fuel alternatives such as restoring the gas supply and developing renewable energy sources, but pose investment challenges. Other pressures include the best trees being illegally cut for export and furniture, grazing of livestock in forest areas preventing regeneration, and the lack of community stewardship and responsibility for forests. Given the arid climate and the fact that these are “relict” forests (originated in a different climatic period), cutting can easily lead to desertification—which in fact, already threatens a majority of the country. Furthermore, the density of the remaining forested area is low.

Fortunately, Armenia still has some beautiful forests very much worth preserving. There are wonderful forests in Lori and Tavoush regions in the north as well as near Kapan and Meghri in the South.

Water Resources
Armenia is rich in water resources, and yet, like the world as a whole, Armenia’s water resources are poorly conserved and its water quality is degraded and under threat of further deterioration. In principle, the country has sufficient water resources to maintain healthy aquatic ecosystems and provide the natural services of safe drinking water, irrigation water, and energy production. Almost 98% of Armenia’s drinking water is derived from its abundant groundwater resources.

The inherent quality of the groundwater supply throughout the country is excellent, but the pollution of the water with human and animal waste transferred into the supply through broken pipes is widespread. Surface water remains under threat from residual industrial contamination in riverbed sediments, discharges from remaining industries, sewage from villages, increased suspended sediment due to deforestation and agricultural runoff.

The primary consumption of water in Armenia is for irrigation, with use as an electricity source riding on the coattails of irrigation water collection in reservoirs. Armenia receives most of its precipitation in the late fall through springtime, and many parts of the country rely on snowmelt and reservoirs to maintain irrigation water supply during the growing season. In addition, the Ararat valley relies heavily on water from Lake Sevan. Because Armenia is hot and dry during the summer, the loss of irrigation water from evaporation is high, exacerbated by the crude flood irrigation used throughout the country and leading to pandemic soil degradation through salinization. Most farmers consider the lack and cost of water to be significant problems, but awareness of proper irrigation technique and access to modern irrigation equipment is very poor, meaning that much irrigation water is wasted. Historically, the partial draining of Lake Sevan has been the single most prominent impact on biodiversity, but the importance and likelihood of fully restoring the lake ecosystem is greatly overstated. Raising the lake level is unworkable considering the investment required and the displacement of human settlements from the current shoreline that would occur. A common misconception is that Lake Sevan is an important drinking water resource. Actually, the waters of Sevan are unsafe to drink directly, however, the Lake Sevan basin does serve as an important catchment for recharge of groundwater beneath much of the country. The most beneficial action to improve Lake Sevan would be the elimination of raw sewerage discharges into the lake, but this has only recently received any attention.

Air
Air quality in urban Armenia has improved markedly since the industrial closures that followed independence from the Soviet Union. However, much of this improvement is only temporary given emerging interests in re-opening some former polluting factories and the increase in the number of cars in the country. Therefore the apparently mild problems with air quality in Armenia at present provide a false sense of security concerning what may become a priority public health concern over the next decade. Even now, however, public health suffers from chronically polluted air. The two greatest areas of concern at this writing are occupational exposures and exposures from cement production.

Coupled with the higher altitudes of a mountainous country like Armenia, mid-latitude ozone depletion should be of concern to anyone enjoying the outdoors. The government observatory ArmHydroMet has measured steadily increasing intensities of ultraviolet light in Armenia over the last thirty years, indicating that Armenia has not escaped the effect of ozone depletion at mid-latitudes. No research has been conducted to gauge the effect of increased ultraviolet light on crop productivity or biodiversity in Armenia, but its effect on the risk of skin cancer will be the same as anywhere else: sunscreen is strongly advised for outdoor activities.

Solid Waste
The transition from a state-controlled economy to a poorly-regulated free market has greatly increased the production of domestic hazardous waste. Packaging materials such as bottles or grocery bags that used to be reused are now primarily made of single-use plastic. In addition, the garbage collection system in urban areas is dysfunctional due to a population that feels almost no civic responsibility—this results in a very low rate of payment for service and the inconsistent use of garbage receptacles. After collection, there is no adequate facility for garbage disposal. The country has no sanitary landfills or incinerators: waste is thrown onto hundreds of unofficial (and official) dumpsites and frequently openly burned. In rural areas these dumpsites are often river gorges or open land adjacent to the community. Although investment is needed to help the government establish functioning systems, the conscience of the public must also be developed if new systems are to be successful.

Although the problem of domestic solid waste is most visible, the problems of hazardous waste are perhaps a greater public health concern. Nuclear waste is currently being stored in temporary facilities at the Metsamor nuclear power plant, even though by contract with the Russian Federation it should be removed from the country. The Ministry of Nature Protection reports high levels of total alpha radiation (exceeding the drinking water standard) for the Metsamor river during the eight months with highest precipitation, indicating that radiation-contaminated soils from the power plant site are periodically washed into the river. Hospital waste that should be incinerated to kill pathogens is routinely thrown into open garbage bins outside of hospitals. Car batteries are frequently discarded into apartment yards where children play, causing lead pollution in soils there sufficient to place up to 20% of the children in Yerevan at risk from chronic lead poisoning. In the northern (Alaverdi) and southern (Kapan/Kajaran) mining districts the waste from mining fills entire river valleys and turns the small streams draining the mining districts red and acid. And throughout the country toxic dumps contain pesticides, metallic industrial wastes, sulfuric acid pools, and other toxics from former industrial and agricultural operations.

Soil Degradation
The Armenian culture and the present national economy are built on a strong agrarian tradition: herding cows and sheep, growing grapes, apricots, and wheat, and living close to the earth. In present day Armenia the extent of arable land is limited and under multiple threats from degradation. Erosion by wind and water, physical compaction or chemical alteration are impacting Armenia’s pasture land and farm land. Lands nearest to rural communities are heavily used in a tragedy of the commons that begins with compacted soils etching the mountain slopes with the criss-crossing trails of sheep and cows and ultimately leads to barren slopes sloughing off with the spring rains and filling the rivers with silt and sand. Farther afield, traditional pasture lands are undergoing an ecological transition as a lack of transportation prohibits shepherds from grazing herds there and the fodder grass that is best adapted to grazed land gives way to other species that thrive in preference when there is little disturbance from sheep and cows.

The privatization of Armenia’s farms into small one to two hectare plots has made efficient management of farmland difficult, and this is exacerbated by the fact that farmers were formerly directed in their work through centralized collectives and individually lack training in farming techniques that can preserve topsoil and its fertility. In addition, the Ararat valley (the single largest farming region in the country) has been almost completely deforested and has no windbreaks to protect soil from the strong dry breezes that occur almost every day during the summer. The lack of cover crops (such as alfalfa) adds to the problem and misses an opportunity to restore soil fertility and provide livestock feed.

The environment represents a pivotal situation for Armenia. Resolutions of environmental challenges facing the country will require a combination of factors, not the least of which is the firm establishment of the Rule of Law. Other vital elements should include an improvement in the economic situation, a shift to more long-term approaches (among individuals and leadership), and a fundamental understanding of the critical importance of environmental protection for the economic and physical wellbeing of the country and its people.

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